In the aftermath of the student protests of ’68 in Yugoslavia, a small group of three students decided to fight fear with laughter. Their satirical magazine Frontisterion didn’t live to see its first publication. It was seized and burned before left the printing house. What was so subversive about a student periodical that it had to be banned and burned?

Student Insurrection

The memorable 1968 was an especially turbulent year across the globe. Protests spread like wildfire among students and workers against the bureaucratic regimes. Along with half of Europe, the USA, Mexico City, and Brazil, Yugoslavia played its part in the protest. However, the June events were scarcely covered by the Western media and even less so analyzed in the aftermath. The idea of a socialist and liberal Yugoslavia clouded the seriousness of the events that took place.

It all started on the night of 2 June when the police expelled a group of students from a small theatre that featured a play only for the Youth-Action members. Revolted by this, students gathered and entered a conflict with the police, that would grow into a seven-day strike. Beatings and the following banning of all public gatherings pushed the students to seclude themselves in the amphitheater of the Faculty of Philosophy. There they held debates and speeches on social justice and handed out banned copies of the magazine Student.

The Aftermath

During a televised speech on 9 June, Josip Broz Tito declared that “the students are right”, intending thus to pacify the protests. Nevertheless, the state imprisoned students who led the protest and fired professors who supported them.

However, after the expulsion of old members of the League of Communists in the fall of ’69, the party government had a problem. They wanted to elect a new faculty committee at the Faculty of Philosophy. At the same time, they needed to ensure that all that were active during June ’68 were kept out. They were looking for a neutral, good, and obedient student to carry out the rigged elections. Little did they know that Svetlana Slapšak, who happened to be awarded as the best student of the faculty, was also one of the faces lost in the ’68 crowd.

Svetlana grabbed the opportunity “with both hands”, she says and conducted elections in a traditional fashion of Athenian democracy. The unassuming student of classical studies thus turned out to be a leading figure in the satirical revolt.

Poster for the Exhibition of Political Archaeology in 1970

Frontisterion: performance of protest?

On the second anniversary of the June protests in 1970, Svetlana, along with Zoran Minderović and Milan Ćirković, launched the satirical students’ magazine Frontisterion. They were the chief – and only – editors, as other students didn’t want to associate themselves with the esoteric playfulness of their humor. Although playful, it wasn’t as innocent as it turned out.

The name “Frontisterion” was borrowed from the play The Clouds by Aristophanes, a term designating the “thinking room” in which Socrates hangs from the ceiling and thinks. This was an homage to Aristophanes himself as well, whose brand of humor they, no doubt, inherited.

“We are the pride of our mother. We hate you. We stand on the stances of a critical twist on the entire hysteria of humanity.” 

– Journal for students of the Faculty of Philosophy, Draining logos (excavation mark)

The three allied with the printing house Kosmos, which can still be found near Slavija Square. The magazine had great success with the audience at Kosmos. The students were happy to see that the workers at the printing house cracked their cyphered humor, hidden invectives, and quoted their jokes amongst themselves.

For the release of the magazine, the students prepared an exhibition on “Political Archeology” with the slogan “We hate you”. The poster was a mockup warrant, indicting Socrates of stealing spoons, anticerberism, claustrophobia, claustrophobia, reading the writings of Singidunum Fjord, and so on.

Despite the support from professors such as Nebojša Popov, both the event and the magazine were quietly suppressed. Frontisterion was seized before its official release and the three dissidents had to “smuggle” several copies out of the printing house before they were destroyed. Reflecting on these events, Slapšak admitted that they were a testament to the overall hysteria of the government, rather than the avant-garde humor itself.

Satire in Court

But the final price was paid by the president of the student board Vlada Mijanović, who ended up in prison. The rest of them were only to lose their passports and the possibility of a career. Of course, the trial awaited Vladimir, a.k.a. Vlada Revolution, long before, but now Slapšak too got involved. She was allegedly called as a witness in the trial and interviewed in the investigative procedure. It lasted about 8 hours, during which Svetlana gave a lecture in her field – on the etymology of ancient Greek words. She would convince them that “basileus” etymologically doesn’t mean king at all – which was a lie. This was a way to confuse the Investigative Judge and hide the true meaning of their provocative intertextual play.

“I used everything I knew from the etymology and historical phonetics of Greek, I think some of my arguments at that time would have passed the professional evaluation.”

Slapšak would later admit that this was “the most the most brilliant lecture” of her career.

Significance of Frontisterion

The magazine itself had virtually no effect on the public nor was it recognized by its peers. Slapšak, Minderović, and Ćirković went on to write their satirical essays and made tape recordings that circled Belgrade through the ether. Shortly after, this too stopped as the group disassembled.

Nevertheless, the effort of the three students was acknowledged by those such as Professor Nebojša Popov, who recognized the democratic roots of their humor. In some respect, in ancient Greece, comedy was far more important than tragedy in a political sense. In a comedy, you were allowed, at least for a brief period, to call out any citizen and make a fool of them. Frontisterion, Slapšak points out, was also a kind of inscription in such a ludic European tradition.

They all continued, in their way, to fight for these values for a long time. Slapšak is now an award-winning essayist and a 2005 candidate for the Nobel Peace Prize.

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There’s no consensus on the origin of chess and its history, but there is a universal need for such games. From the dawn of mankind, people have searched for ways to improve their life quality. No matter the state of the world, people managed to achieve great success in this regard. Starting from the first weapon to the first fire lit to the invention of the wheel, the man has found a way to make his life easier and more comfortable. However, besides the bare necessities for surviving, the mind craved inspiration and challenge. The man could no longer be satisfied solely by sheer existence – he needed a dare. Thus, among other things, brain games were born, one of which is chess. It slowly progressed from a mere game to finally be considered a sport.

Origins of Chess

The origin of chess isn’t something that all historians agree upon. Many other inventions of ancient times have more than one myth about their creation, and this one is no exception. The widespread story of the creation of chess is also a story of the mathematical problem of exponential growth.

The Wheat Myth

One of the theories states that it is a story of wheat and chessboard squares. The inventor of chess requested his ruler to pay him for the game in wheat, and in a very particular manner – one grain of wheat for the first square of the chessboard, two grains for the second, four for the third, eight for the fourth, and so on, gradually progressing.

The ruler laughed it off, as he thought that this would be a meager prize for a brilliant invention. However, the court treasurers reported the unexpectedly large amount of wheat grains he would need to provide the inventor with, so large that it would outstrip the ruler’s resources. The number of grains of wheat acquired in this manner would be 18,446,744,073,709,551,615. Versions of this theory differ as to whether the inventor of the game becomes a high-ranking adviser due to his brilliance, or was executed for his cunningness.

A hand-signed chessboard by the 18 Grandmasters participating in the World Chess Championship in Leningrad 1973.

Alternate Myth

Another myth about this popular game draws its origins from India. It can be found in the Shahnameh, an epic poem written by the Persian poet Ferdowsi between 977 and 1010 AD. This story tells the tale of Talhand and Gav, two half-brothers who vie for the throne of Hind (India). They meet in the battle where Talhand dies on his elephant without a single wound. Believing that Gav had killed him, their mother is distraught. Gav tells his mother that he is not responsible for Talhand’s death, but she finds it hard to believe. Thus, the sages of the court invent the game of chess, detailing the pieces’ characteristics and the way they move in order to show the her how the battle unfolded and how Talhand died of fatigue when surrounded by his enemies. The poem uses the Persian term “Shāh māt” (checkmate) to describe the Talhand’s fate.

Evolution of Chess

Chess is a game that gradually evolved, whereas the exact time it was invented depends on the very definition of chess. The most common opinion is that precursors to chess originated in India during the Gupta Empire in the 6th century. One of them was a game called chaturanga, which roughly translates as “four divisions (of the army)”- infantry, cavalry, elephantry, and chariotry. Respectively, the pieces as we know them today, namely, pawn, knight, bishop, and rook, evolved out of these military divisions. It was the earliest known game to have two essential features found in all later chess variations – different pieces having different attributes and victory depending on the fate of one piece, the king of modern chess.

Eastern Origins

A common theory is that India’s development of the board, and chess, was likely due to India’s mathematical enlightenment involving the creation of the number zero. Scholars in areas to which the game subsequently spread detailed the Indian use of chess as a tool for military strategy, mathematics, gambling, and even its vague association with astronomy.

India introduced chess to Persia, and it became a part of the princely or courtly education of the Persian nobility. In Sassanid Persia the name became chatrang, and the rules were further developed. Players started calling “Shāh!” (Persian for ‘’king’’) when attacking the opponent’s king, and “Shāh Māt!”(Persian for “the king is helpless”) when the king was attacked and could not escape the attack. Persia further introduced this game to the Arab world.

Medieval to Modern Chess

Chess came to Europe from Spain and was further spread to the Byzantine Empire, where it was called Zatrikion. The social value attached to the game – seen as a prestigious pastime associated with nobility and high culture, is clear from the expensive and exquisitely made chessboards of the medieval era. The popularity of chess in the Western courtly society peaked between the 12th and the 15th century. The practice of playing chess for money became so widespread during the 13th century that Louis IX of France issued an ordinance against gambling in 1254. In Europe chess evolved to its modern form that we know today.

New Rules

The new pawn move, where pawns were allowed to advance two squares on their first move instead of just one, was first introduced in Spain in 1280. Also, the king could jump once in order to be put safely in a corner more quickly. The queen and bishop remained relatively weak until between 1475 AD and 1500 AD in Spain, Portugal, France or Italy. Then, the queen’s and bishops’ moves started developing further, making chess similar to its modern form. This form of chess was called ‘’Queen’s Chess’’ or ‘’Mad Queen Chess’’. These changes led to much more value being attached to the previously minor change of pawn movement. Checkmate became easier and games could now be won in fewer moves.

Gens Una Sumus is the slogan of the FIDE (World Chess Federation) which means We Are One People and symbolizes the cosmopolitan spirit of the federation.

As chess requires a significant amount of mental effort, it is clear that it is not a mere leisure game. However, one could always enjoy a good game on a lazy afternoon, perhaps even more knowing how it progressed through the ages, finally becoming the board game we play today.

Душан Димитриев
Dušan Dimitriev

Images taken from items listed on Sigedon Books and Antiques  store

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This is the story of the most controversial chess player of all time, Robert James Fischer. Bobby started playing chess when he was just 6 years old.

Regina Wender Fischer immigrated to the US with her daughter, Joan Fischer. It was just a few months before the Second World War began. A few years later, she settled in the new world. Soon after, she became pregnant and gave birth to Robert James Fischer in Chicago.  His father was Paul Nemenyi, the famous Hungarian-Jewish physicist. Unfortunately, the two didn’t spend much time together. The US immigration services denied him access to the US due to his “communist sympathies”.

The Legend Was Born

When Bobby was six, he found a book about chess in the family’s vacation spot on Long Island. He spent a lot of time alone with the chessboard, which made his mother quite concerned. Regina tried to post an ad in the local newspaper to try to find children willing to play chess with him. However, the journalists rejected the ad because they couldn’t find an appropriate category to post it in. At the age of seven, Bobby met his first instructor, Carmine Nigro. Even though their relationship lasted for only 5 years, Nigro played a decisive role in Bobby’s decision to pursue a career in chess.

Rush to Mastery

After his instructor’s departure in 1956, Bobby became close with John W Collins who became his mentor and lifelong friend. In one year’s time, Fischer broke his first record by winning the U.S. Junior Chess Championship at the age of thirteen. So, he became the youngest junior champion in the history of the US Chess Federation. After winning the prize and a few tournaments, he got invited to play the 1957-1958 US Championship, despite being too young to play. He excelled in his play and won the championship before his fifteenth birthday.  He then became the  International Master of Chess.

Shortly after gaining the title of International Master, Fischer got invited to the Soviet Union. Upon arrival, he has negated the privilege of playing the official games with Soviet grandmasters. The main reasons were his age and not being a grandmaster. The impatient young master didn’t take the information well, lost his temper, and said that he was “fed up with these Russian pigs”. This angered the Soviets who then “forwarded” Fischer to Yugoslavian chess authorities that took him in as a guest.

The Eccentricity

As you might have guessed, Fischer was not an ordinary chess player. He dropped out of school at the age of sixteen and started learning languages just so he could be able to read more chess-related literature. Bobby’s eccentricity led him towards losing his title. He was scheduled to defend his title against Karpov but he compiled an extremely unusual list of terms that the world chess federation didn’t find agreeable. After seeing his terms being rejected, Fischer resigned his World Chess Championship title in 1974.

Bobby was also known for his radically anti-Semitic views despite him being of Jewish origins. He even accused the Encyclopedia Judaica of using his name to promote Judaism. However, he kept his remarks to himself and was on good terms with other Jewish players. But, he had trouble respecting authorities. This led to drastic consequences, one of which was violating the US embargo on Yugoslavia in 1992.  That year Fischer came to Belgrade to play with Spassky.

The Controversy

Even though US officials warned him, he disobeyed the order and made it to the “Revenge Match of the 20^th Century”. This particular transgression got him incarcerated in Japan in 2004 when the US revoked his passport. Bobby resisted the arrest and got beaten by Japanese police officers in the process. The trauma of being assaulted and incarcerated left a great impact on him. Bobby wanted to revoke his citizenship a long time before this incident took place, due to his hatred for the US. He even applied for German and Japanese citizenship. In the end, he was granted Icelandic citizenship in 2005 for humanitarian reasons.

When the Game is Not Enough

Feeling that the game was, in a way, too predetermined by the openings, Bobby decided to change the rules of the game. The game was called Fischer Random Chess or Chess960. In this variety of chess, the pawns retained their original position while the rest of the figures were put randomly in their respective rows. The number in the name ‘’960’’ is the actual number of possible starting positions. Some chess clubs still play the Fischer Random chess.

Works and Legacy

The “Fischer clock”, as you might have guessed, is a patent made by Bobby. The difference between a normal chess clock and the Fischer clock is that the latter gives additional time to the players after each move. After his historic rematch with Spassky in 1992, the invention soon became widely accepted and implemented in international tournaments.

Bobby started writing at the age of sixteen when he published his first work: ‘’Bobby Fischer’s Game of Chess”. Other publications followed: “A Bust to the King’s Gambit”, “The Russians Have Fixed World Chess”, “The Ten Greatest Masters in History”, “My 60 Memorable Games “, “I Was Tortured in the Pasadena Jailhouse!” and “Bobby Fischer Teaches Chess”. I will not write about the Grandmaster’s contribution to chess theory as there are too many of them to list.

By Marko Milovanović

 Photo copyright by – World Chess Hall of Fame

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